The assay of biochemical analytes such as glucose and lactate is important in a variety of clinical contexts. Biomedical sensors, such as enzyme electrodes, can be used to determine the concentration of certain biochemicals rapidly and with considerable accuracy. Enzyme electrodes can detect glucose, urea, uric acid, various alcohols, and a number of amino acids under certain well-defined conditions. For example, the monitoring of glucose concentrations in fluids of the human body is of particular relevance to diabetes management. Continuously or intermittently operating glucose sensors, including sensors implanted in the human body (such as the Continuous Glucose Monitoring System (CGMS) and Telemetered Glucose Monitoring System (TGMS) by Medtronic MiniMed), are sought for the management of diabetes, for example, for warning of imminent or actual hypoglycemia as well as its avoidance. The monitoring of lactate concentrations in fluids of the human body is useful in the diagnosis and assessment of a number of medical conditions including trauma, myocardial infarction, congestive heart failure, pulmonary edema and septicemia. For example, glucose sensors suitable for in vivo use can be prepared by depositing a glucose sensitive enzyme, such as glucose oxidase, onto an electrode via an electromotive plating process.
Biomedical measuring devices commonly used to monitor physiological variables include amperometric sensor devices that utilize electrodes modified with an appropriate enzyme coating. Sensors having such enzyme electrodes enable the user to determine the concentration of various analytes rapidly and with considerable accuracy, for example by utilizing the reaction of an enzyme and an analyte where this reaction utilizes a detectable coreactant and/or produces a detectable reaction product. For example, a number of glucose sensors have been developed that are based on the reaction between glucose and glucose oxidase (GOx). As glucose and oxygen diffuse into an immobilized enzyme layer on a sensor, the glucose reacts with oxygen and water to produce H2O2. Glucose can be detected electrochemically using the immobilized enzyme glucose oxidase coupled to oxygen and/or hydrogen peroxide-sensitive electrodes. The reaction results in a reduction in oxygen and the production of hydrogen peroxide proportional to the concentration of glucose in the sample medium. A typical device is composed of at least two detecting electrodes, or at least one detecting electrode and a reference signal source, to sense the concentration of oxygen or hydrogen peroxide in the presence and absence of enzyme reaction. Additionally, the complete monitoring system typically contains an electronic sensing and control means for determining the difference in the concentration of the substances of interest. From this difference, the concentration of analytes such as glucose can be determined.
A wide variety of such analyte sensors as well as methods for making and using such sensors are known in the art. Examples of such sensors, sensor sets and methods for their production are described, for example, in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,390,691, 5,391,250, 5,482,473, 5,299,571, 5,568,806 as well as PCT International Publication Numbers WO 01/58348, WO 03/034902, WO 03/035117, WO 03/035891, WO 03/023388, WO 03/022128, WO 03/022352, WO 03/023708, WO 03/036255, WO03/036310 and WO 03/074107, the contents of each of which are incorporated herein by reference. While a number of sensor designs and processes for making such sensors are known in the art, many are tailored to subcutaneous applications. There remains a need for the identification of the methods and processes that facilitate the measurement of glucose and other analytes in a variety of direct blood contacting applications. The present invention fulfills these needs and provides further related advantages.